Alasdair MacIntyre

Developing a personal philosophy of life often involves understanding significant concepts that shape the thoughts of renowned philosophers. One such concept is the idea of public reason, which holds a central place in John Rawls' philosophy. While many are aware of this idea, its importance and implications are sometimes not fully grasped. Gaining a clear understanding of public reason can profoundly impact how we shape our own philosophical outlook. This article aims to examine John Rawls' philosophy, the concept of public reason, and their relevance in forming a well-rounded philosophy of life. Key features of John Rawls' philosophy John Rawls was a prominent philosopher known for his work on political and moral philosophy, particularly his concept of justice as fairness. At the core of his philosophy is the idea that a just society is one where everyone has equal opportunities and benefits, regardless of their background or circumstances. One of his key contributions is the "original position," a thought experiment where individuals design a society behind a "veil of ignorance." This means they do not know their social status, abilities, or privileges, ensuring decisions are made impartially. Rawls argued that this approach would lead to principles that protect the most disadvantaged members of society, as individuals would want to ensure fairness in case they ended up in a less privileged position. Two main principles emerge from this idea: the first ensures equal basic rights and freedoms for all, and the second allows social and economic inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged and provide equal opportunities. By framing justice in terms of fairness and equality, Rawls' philosophy has had a lasting impact on debates about ethics, democracy, and public policy. His work emphasizes the importance of creating systems that prioritize fairness and solidarity, ensuring that everyone in society can thrive. What is public reason? John Rawls’s concept of public reason refers to the idea that citizens in a democratic society should use shared reasoning when debating fundamental political matters. According to Rawls, public reason involves seeking common ground in decisions that affect essential aspects of justice and the basic structure of society. It encourages individuals to base their arguments on principles and values that all reasonable members of society could accept, regardless of their personal beliefs or backgrounds. Rawls explains that public reason applies specifically to constitutional essentials and matters of basic justice. He believes that when discussing these core issues, people should set aside controversial personal doctrines or religious views. Instead, they should focus on ideas that resonate with the principles of democracy, equality, and fairness. This approach creates a sense of mutual respect and ensures that all citizens feel included in political decision-making processes. By emphasizing reasons that others can reasonably endorse, public reason works to maintain a stable and harmonious society. It does not require individuals to abandon their personal beliefs entirely but asks that they present their views in ways that are accessible and understandable to all. This framework reflects Rawls's commitment to pluralism and his belief in achieving consensus through shared reasoning. This example helps to demonstrate this philosophical perspective. Imagine a group of citizens coming together to decide on a fair and just policy for their society. Instead of basing their arguments on personal beliefs or religious views, they focus on reasons that everyone in the group can understand and agree on, regardless of their individual backgrounds. For instance, when discussing access to healthcare, the group argues that everyone should have equal opportunities to receive medical care because it benefits the overall well-being of society and ensures fairness. They avoid framing the discussion in a way that could exclude certain perspectives or create bias. Instead, they aim to find common ground that respects everyone’s place in their shared society. This approach reflects an example where public reason guides decision-making to achieve fairness and inclusivity within a diverse community. Challenges to John Rawls's view about public reason Philosophers have raised several objections to John Rawls's concept of public reason, challenging its relevance, applicability, and fairness. One common criticism is that public reason seems overly restrictive. Critics argue that it excludes certain viewpoints from public discourse, particularly those rooted in deep religious or cultural convictions. By requiring individuals to frame their arguments in terms that all citizens can agree upon, public reason might silence or marginalize perspectives that cannot be translated into secular or universally acceptable terms. This exclusion, some philosophers claim, undermines the diversity of thought that is essential to democratic societies. Another objection is that public reason assumes an unrealistic level of agreement among citizens about what constitutes "reasonable" arguments. Societies are often deeply divided on fundamental moral or ethical questions, and critics contend that Rawls's framework doesn’t adequately address how to bridge such divisions. For example, issues such as abortion, climate change, or economic inequality are subjects of intense disagreement, even among people who consider themselves reasonable. Challengers of Rawls’s view argue that his concept of public reason oversimplifies the complexity of political discourse and fails to provide practical guidance on how to resolve such significant disputes. Additionally, some philosophers believe that public reason places an excessive burden on individuals, asking them to separate their deeply held personal beliefs from their political arguments. This demand, critics suggest, may not be fair or even feasible for many people. For those whose identities and values are strongly tied to their religious or cultural background, separating personal convictions from public discussions could feel like a denial of their authenticity. Opponents of Rawls’s approach argue that this expectation puts certain groups—particularly religious minorities and marginalized communities—at a disadvantage in public debates. Lastly, critics question whether public reason is genuinely neutral. While Rawls intends for it to be a fair framework for resolving political disagreements, some philosophers argue that it subtly favours liberal and secular viewpoints, reinforcing dominant ideologies and excluding others. This perceived lack of neutrality has led some thinkers to reject the concept of public reason, advocating instead for more inclusive approaches to political deliberation. Why public reason is important to John Rawls' philosophy Understanding the concept of public reason is crucial to gaining a deeper insight into John Rawls' philosophy. Promotes Democratic Values The idea of public reason is closely tied to the principles of a functioning democracy. It emphasizes the need for citizens to use shared reasoning that all members of society can understand when discussing laws and policies. This approach fosters inclusivity by ensuring that discussions are not dominated by private beliefs or ideologies that others may not share or comprehend. By grounding debates in common rational grounds, public reason helps maintain fairness in democratic decision-making processes and ensures that all voices can be heard without being excluded due to differing personal worldviews or cultural backgrounds. Encourages Mutual Respect Public reason calls for individuals to present their arguments in ways that respect the diverse perspectives present in a pluralistic society. This helps create an environment where people with different religious, moral, or philosophical views can coexist and cooperate peacefully. When members of a society engage with one another using public reasoning, it encourages understanding and discourages the dismissal of others simply because their beliefs are different. This mutual respect is essential for reducing conflict and building trust in a diverse community. Supports Stability in Society A society built on public reason is more likely to achieve stability over time. Differences in religion, culture, and personal beliefs can often lead to tension and division. Public reason provides a way to discuss and establish laws or policies in a manner that prioritizes shared values rather than personal convictions. This reduces the risk of alienating groups within society and ensures that the rules governing society are supported by a broad consensus. Stability arises when citizens feel that the laws are justified and can be understood through common reasoning. Fosters Cooperation Among Diverse Citizens Public reason is essential for fostering cooperation in a society that is filled with diverse individuals and groups. It creates a framework where people can work together on shared goals, even if they hold different private views. By focusing on arguments and justifications that everyone can access and understand, citizens can find common ground and overcome the challenges of disagreement. This ability to cooperate is particularly valuable in resolving conflicts and addressing large-scale societal issues that affect everyone, such as climate change or economic inequality. Contrasting John Rawls' philosophy with Alasdair MacIntyre's philosophy John Rawls’s concept of public reason emphasizes the idea that in a pluralistic society, individuals should appeal to shared principles or values when debating fundamental issues of justice and politics. This notion contrasts sharply with Alasdair MacIntyre’s philosophy, which focuses on moral traditions and the narrative contexts shaping individuals and communities. While Rawls advocates for a unified framework of reasoning to bridge diverse viewpoints, MacIntyre critiques such approaches as overly abstract and disconnected from the lived experiences and moral traditions that give actions their meaning. For MacIntyre, ethical reasoning cannot be separated from the historical and cultural contexts in which it is rooted. He argues that understanding morality comes through participation in a particular tradition, where virtues are cultivated within a shared way of life. Rawls, on the other hand, seeks to establish a neutral ground where people of different backgrounds and beliefs can engage in public discourse without relying on their specific traditions or comprehensive doctrines. Ultimately, the main difference lies in their approach to diversity and moral reasoning. While Rawls aims for a universal framework to accommodate pluralism, MacIntyre rejects this idea, contending that moral clarity and coherence can only come from within a particular community or tradition. This makes Rawls’s philosophy more focused on procedural fairness, whereas MacIntyre places greater emphasis on the substance of moral traditions. Public Reason, John Rawls' philosophy and the philosophy of life Reflecting on John Rawls’s view about public reason, whether you agree with it or not, is an opportunity to engage more deeply with your own beliefs and values as you develop your philosophy of life. At its core, considering his ideas challenges us to think about how we engage with others in a diverse society and how we justify our decisions in ways that are inclusive and respectful. Living in a world filled with diverse beliefs, values, and opinions means that making decisions that affect others often requires understanding perspectives different from our own. Reflecting on public reason encourages us to question not only what we believe but also how we communicate those beliefs in shared spaces. This process of reflection is practically important because it develops skills that are crucial for navigating real-world situations. Whether in personal relationships, workplaces, or community engagements, being mindful of how to present our reasons in a fair and open way helps build trust and cooperation. It pushes us to think critically about whether our reasons for certain choices or actions are ones that others can reasonably accept, even if they don’t fully agree. This is not about simply avoiding conflict but rather about fostering mutual understanding and creating a foundation for productive dialogue. Furthermore, reflecting on Rawls’s philosophy can shape how you approach meaningful ethical questions in your daily life. It reminds us to consider the broader impact of our actions and decisions, emphasizing the importance of fairness and accessibility in reasoning. While we may not always reach agreement with others, striving to explain our reasoning with clarity and fairness can contribute to a more harmonious society. This practice of engaging with others’ perspectives can, in turn, deepen your own philosophy of life by cultivating empathy and a commitment to values that prioritize cooperation and respect. Whether you accept or reject Rawls’s specific ideas, grappling with his view teaches an invaluable lesson about self-awareness and intentionality. It helps to ground your approach to life in a framework of thoughtfulness and consideration for others, which is vital in creating meaningful connections and navigating the complexities of modern life. Further reading Cohen, J. (1989). Deliberation and democratic legitimacy. The Good Polity, 17-34. Freeman, S. (2007). Rawls. London, England: Routledge. Habermas, J. (1995). Reconciliation through the public use of reason. The Journal of Philosophy, 92(3), 109-131. https://doi.org/10.2307/2940842 Maffettone, S. (2010). Rawls: An introduction. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Nussbaum, M. C. (2011). Creating capabilities: The human development approach. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Quong, J. (2011). Liberalism without perfection. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Quong, J. (2014). Public reason. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition). Rawls, J. (1996). Political liberalism (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Rawls, J. (1999). A theory of justice (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Scanlon, T. M. (2000). What we owe to each other. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Stout, J. (2004). Democracy and tradition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Weithman, P. (2010). Why political liberalism? On John Rawls's political turn. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Alasdair MacIntyre

John Rawls’ Philosophy and public reason